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Nessëran
=Phonology= Vowels Length Nessëran has a vowel system involving nine 'basic' vowels: /æ/, /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /e/, /ɪ/, /i/, /ɒ/, /ɔ/ and /u/. In Old Nessëran, all of these vowels came in a long and a short variety, however only /ɑː/, /ɛː/, /eː/ and /ɒː/ were carried over into Modern Nessëran. In more recent times, /ɛː/ and /ɒː/ have become to be realised as /iː/ and /ɶː/ respectively. As these sound changes occurred after the most recent spelling & language reform they are still represented by and , for example 'eeseen' /iːsiːn/ and 'loor' /lɶːɾ/. Representation Consonants The following table shows the consonants that are found in Nessëran. When found in pairs, the one on the left is voiceless, and the one on the right is voiced. # The palatal nasal /ɲ/ is an allophone of /n/ before a palatal consonant /j/ or /ç/. # The velar nasal /ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/ before a velar consonant /k/ or /g/. # The voiceless palatal plosive /c/ is an allophone of /k/ or /t/ before a palatal consonant /j/ or /ç/. # The voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/ is an allophone of /g/ or /d/ before a palatal consonant /j/ or /ç/. # The voiced palatal fricative /ʝ/ is never found as a phoneme in it's own right, only ever sometimes as an allophone of /ç/ between vowels or before a voiced consonant. # /ʎ/ is an allophone of /l/ before palatal consonants /j/ or /ç/. Allophones As shown from the table above, the Nessëran language has a large consonant inventory, but many of them are merely allophones of other sounds. Palatals There are many allophones in Nessëran, with all but one regarding palatal consonants. When preceding a palatal consonant (/j/ or /ç/), most consonants become palatal themselves. So for example, the word 'unsenq', meaning 'to maintain' is pronounced unsɛɲç. The palatal allophones are as follows: /n ~ ɲ/, /t, k ~ c/, /d, g ~ ɟ/ and /l ~ ʎ/. The fact that both /k/ & /t/ and /g/ & /d/ share the same palatal allophones rarely causes confusion, however it sometimes does, such as the words 'tetq' ('swan') and 'tekq' ('palm') which are both pronounced tɛcç. Velars There is also one velar allophone, which is also found in English. This is when the alveolar nasal /n/ is found before a velar consonant such as /k/ or /g/, /n/ becomes /ŋ/. This is found in english words such as si'n'k'' and ''fi'n'ger. =Orthography= Alphabet The Nessëran language uses the Latin alphabet, modified by a few extra letters. Letters with diacritics The Nessëran Alphabet employs three diacritic marks. These are the diaeresis (ä and ë), the cedilla (ç,ş and ţ) and the grave accent (ò). These symbols are not regarded as letters with diacritics, instead as individual letters in their own right. They represent sounds quite different from their non-diacritic counterparts. Ţ versus C The letters C and Ţ both represent the same sound, the Voiceless Alveolar Affricate, a sound similar to the last sound in ca'ts'. There is no rule as to when C and Ţ are used, and one needs to just learn a word containing the sound /ts/ with its spelling. This can sometimes lead to confusion, as for example, the words cent and ţent are both pronounced the same way. The letter Ţ is also used in transliterations from Cyrillic, as the equivalent of the letter Ц, as in the words ţär (tsar) and ţink (zinc), and also from other orthographies, such as ţunamy (tsunami). Absent Letters Nessëran does not used the letters or . This is because the sound /w/ is not found in Nessëran, and is instead realised as /v/. The letter x is not used because the sound /ks/ is represented by the letter combination ks. Double Letters Some vowels come in a long and a short variety, with the long variety being represented by doubling the vowel letter as in <ëë> and <ää>. However, and , although representing long vowels, represent long vowels quite different from those of their single counterparts and (see section Nessëran#Vowels for details). Double consonants do not effect the pronunciation of the word, they are usually the result of adding a case suffix to a noun, in which duplicate consonants are retained (whereas duplicate vowels are not). Otherwise they are there purely a relic of Old Nessëran's unregulated orthography rules. =Basic Grammar= Nouns Cases Nouns in Nessëran come in several cases, each recognisable by a particular suffix. For example take the word rymastvai meaning "the car". Examples: *''Hänylalun açulsòr rymastvaisul'' "I traveled here by (the) car" *''Feşsepun açeer denëër'' "I can do this without you" In addition, the word nahär can be used to reverse any noun case, similar to the english word "not". For example the phrase Attakkanalun nahär rymastvaijentres means "I didn't buy the whole car" (literally "i bought not the whole car"). Articles There are two articles in Nessëran, the definate and the indefinate. Both are added as encltics to the noun that they are modifying. Still using the noun rymast meaning "car": Number Nouns in Nessëran come in two numbers, singluar and plural. The plural is marked by adding the ending -n or -en to the noun, so for example seqerr (tree) can be changed to seqerren (trees), and then seqerrenvai (the trees). Posession Possession of nouns are shown by adding an enclitic to the nouns. A possessive enclitic is used instead of an article, to the word "kanapërvaian" (my the couch) would not make sense. Which endings are used is shown in this table, using the noun kanapër (couch): Enclitic Order There is a specific order in which enclitics are added to the end of a noun. The order is this: NOUN+number+article/possession+case. So for example the word kanapërenvaiben (in the couches) is made from the noun kanapër + the plural number ''-en'' + the article ''-vai'' + the Locative case ''-ben''. Adjectives Nessëran adjectives come in numerous forms- as seen by the following table, using the adjective şäreny (nice). Verbs Tenses There are several different verb tenses in Nessëran, each of which is represented by adding a suffix to the verb itself. For example, take the verb visseje (to say). Objects and Subjects The object of a verb is attatched to the end of the word, so in the table: However, the subject of the verb is separate from the verb+object word. It is placed after the verb+object, for example in the sentence "she said to him" vissejalaşin fepe, "fepe" (to him) is placed after "vissejalaşin" (she said). Pronouns Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns in Nessëran are easy, as they only come in one form - so for example "I" and "me" are both represented by the word un. There are no subjective personal pronouns, such as the "her" in "I love '''her", as these are indicated in the form of the verb, such as in "Vyjel'un-aş''" ("I''' love her"), where the the suffix "un" indicates the subject is the first person. For example, the objective personal pronouns in the following sentence are in bold: ''Annädun-'''den nejj fe'' (I like you not him). The subjective pronouns are not needed, as "I like" is represented by a single word "Annädun". Posessive Pronouns Compare: *''Rymastan'' - ("My car") *''Rymastaçestatu anes'' - ("This car is mine") Disjunctive Pronouns Disjunctive pronouns are only used in isolation, for example in Who does this belong to? '''Me'.'' There is no distinction made in english, but in Nessëran they are indicated by a personal pronoun preceded by the word "e". *''Who is this? Me.'' *''Lyr ogaçest? E un.'' Dummy Pronouns Dummy pronouns are like the "it" in it''' is raining, when grammar rules require a pronoun, but it is not taking the place of any particular noun. In Nessëran, dummy pronoun is Ţan, for example Ţan vennussil ("It is raining"). Interrogative Pronouns There are numerous interrogative pronouns in Nessëran, with most of them beginning with "l". Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns are pronouns which link a relative clause with a larger sentence. Often in English they are written as interogative pronouns, just not starting a question. Compare: *''What do you hate? (Interogative) *''This is what you hate. (Relative) In Nessëran relative pronouns are identical to interrogative pronouns preceded by the word "hoq". Compare: *''La kastanid?'' ("What do you hate?") (Interrogative) *''Ogaçest hoq la kastanid.'' ("This is what you hate") (Relative). Demonstratives Demonstratives (English: this, that, those) are not words in there own right, instead they are added as enclitics onto the noun they are demonstrating. For example, the noun "delik" meaning "shoe" When a demonstrative is a pronoun in it's own right, as in This is my car, the demonstrative enclitic (shown above) is added to the dummy word "og". For example compare: *''Rymastaçest'' - ("This car") *''Ogaçest rymastvai'' - ("This is the car") Quantifiers Quantifiers are indicated by a word preceding the noun. Numbers Cardinal Numbers *0 - hin *1 - ull *2 - këry *3 - lëren *4 - aqqär *5 - u *6 - särl *7 - sinel *8 - nolc *9 - kenc *10 - den Ordinal Numbers *0 - hinu *1 - ullu *2 - këru *3 - lërenu *4 - aqqäru *5 - uku *6 - särlu *7 - sinelu *8 - nolcu *9 - kencu *10 - denu Suffixes =Dictionary= Nessëran Dictionary Useful Phrases =Example Text= The Tower of Babel The North Wind and the Sun Category:Languages Category:Nessëran